Study, study, study
In The Republic Plato makes a strong attack against the language used in dramatic poetry. He believes the arts should be banished, and tries to convince his audience of this by emphasizing the negative implications he believes figurative language has. Plato begins by stating how dramatic poets do not really know what they are talking about; “poetry of that sort seems to be injurious to minds which do not possess the antidote in a knowledge of its real nature” (Plato, 324). Then, Plato continues on to explain that because such artists do not create a representation of true knowledge, what they do should not be taken seriously because there is no knowledge of great value. The discovery of truth can only be found through reason, not poetry, or any other art form.
Plato begins his appeal against the arts by defining the different Forms, ‘Form’ meaning the essential properties in an idea which constitute an object, such as a bed or a table. The maker of these ideas of beds and tables is God; such work is a “product of divine workmanship” (Plato, 326). Then, craftsmen (such as carpenters) create imitations, of namely beds and tables. These imitations made by the craftsmen are second-removed imitations from the truth. What the craftsmen make are not the Form or essential nature of Bed, but rather only a particular bed; craftsmen do not create the reality, but only resemble it (Plato, 326). Then, there are imitators who represent the products of the craftsmen. Like a painter, these imitators create only an image of these objects, a representation that is a long way from reality. The artist “knows nothing of the reality, but only the appearance” (Plato, 331). This is because the artist has the lowest level of experience, and therefore only grasps a small part of any object. Overall, the artist does not have the correct belief of the essential form, and therefore the artist’s representation holds no value.
Thinking back to the dramatic poet, a poet is believed to have the lowest level of experience and knowledge. The writer who uses metaphor and similes to articulate an idea is the furthest removed from grasping the truth of an object. The user is the one who knows the most about the performance of something he uses, and it is the user who can report on an object’s good or bad qualities to the maker (Plato, 332). Then the maker has the next highest level of knowledge, because he understands the use for which something is made or designed by nature (Plato, 332). The poets are ignorant and only makers of images. They do not know the truth about the original topics about which they speak of, and this creates problems, specifically psychological problems.
Plato addresses the problems the arts create and makes three main arguments against the arts, specifically dramatic poetry: The arts do not provide any knowledge or value, the arts undermine thinking, and the arts undermine the development of good character.
First, art, specifically poetry, does not provide any knowledge or value because it is so far from the truth of reality. Instead of benefiting one, it actually can cause harm in that it can create illusions. Plato makes the analogy of how an object seen in the distance does not look the same size as the same object close at hand (Plato, 334). The eyes are vulnerable to having tricks played upon them, and for this reason the work of the artist cannot be trusted as possibly providing useful insight.
Next, representational art moves away from the truth, and instead evokes strong emotions. There is a quarrel between reason and emotion, especially in the case of human suffering, specifically a parent’s loss of a child. A good person would not allow himself to be seen when in pain because he would be ashamed to make a scene. He suppresses his impulses, allowing for reason to decide what the right move to make is (Plato, 336). Art makes humans want to create a split between thinking and feeling, but Plato believes one cannot separate these two entities. Instead of acting impulsively on emotions, one must maintain a calm and wise mentality. It is only with a harmonic soul that one can clearly see the truth and act rationally. For this reason, Plato believes strongly that education should be about developing, not about expressing.
Lastly, Plato extends his argument against dramatic poetry further to say that by “encouraging the sympathetic indulgence of emotions which we are ashamed to give way to in our lives” one undermines character (Plato, 337). Art has the capability of evoking strong emotions, and it is possible for these emotions to have a strong affect on the viewer; “to enter into another’s feelings must have an effect on our own” (Plato, 338). These emotions people are exposed to could cause one to acquire personality traits which are diminishing to character. “Poetic representation of love and anger and all those desires and feelings of pleasure or pain which accompany our every action” have the potential to cause a loss of control (Plato, 338).
Plato makes these arguments in attempt to make one aware of the danger the human soul is put in when exposed to art, in particular dramatic poetry. It is his concern that humanity will not lend an ear and learn to distinguish truth from reality.
However, while Plato’s argument against the arts, more narrowly figurative language, may be thorough and sound convincing in some ways, there is more to figurative language than its use as an ornamental/aesthetic device. Figurative language, specifically metaphor, has particular positive roles in human development.
The use of language, specifically analogies and metaphor, is intelligible and comprehensible; metaphor helps to bridge the gap between people of different backgrounds, because it allows for ideas to be communicated in a way anyone can understand. Metaphor ultimately communicates feelings and experiences in a way which cannot be expressed in literal terms. Through this communication, metaphor fosters feelings of universality. Metaphor is relevant to every aspect of the human condition, and therefore should be regarded as valuable in society. Humanity depends on social harmony and understanding to function and live well, and metaphor has the ability to unite people with one another.
Language is a significant part of childhood development for numerous reasons, specifically figurative language. Figurative language provides one with intuitive knowledge, the kind of knowledge that is not obtained by standard logical reasoning. This form of “artistry consists in having an idea worth expressing, the imaginative ability needed to conceive of how, the technical skills needed to work effectively with some material, and the sensibilities needed to make the delicate adjustments that will give the forms the moving qualities that the best of them possess.”[1] This form of knowledge is important to each individual, and children should be exposed to this experience in the educational setting. First, figurative language, specifically metaphor, helps to stimulate the imagination; secondly, one’s ability to construct metaphors enhances strong communication skills; and lastly, learning to develop this craft teaches important life skills, especially critical thinking and problem solving.
Thinking about metaphor in terms of it serving as an aesthetic/ornamental device, one can think about the implications metaphor can have on a child’s imagination. Through the imagination children can stretch and explore; children can “learn to reach beyond one’s capacities, to explore playfully without a preconceived plan, and to embrace the opportunity to learn from mistakes and accidents.” [2] By using one’s imagination to then create metaphor is credited with having positive psychological effects. Kant, a well recognized philosopher articulates that a “productive” imagination brings sensation and understanding together, therein creating a “second nature out of the material supplied to it by actual nature.[3] To better understand these implications it is helpful to turn to Freud’s psychoanalytic studies. Freud claimed one who has creative insight has the ability to “objectify and universalize his fantasies in his artworks.”[4] This form of artistic expression surpasses anything that is seen or heard. The process is an attempt for the speaker to fulfill a desire, and works like this: While making art the artist knows he is in a fantasy world, but through art one is able to return to reality. The artist does this by first making the fantasy into a work of art by stripping the original fantasy of all its personal and egocentric qualities. Then, through elaboration, the artist’s fantasies are transformed into a new kind of reality. Finally, the last step in breaking down the barrier between the artist’s ego and those of others is an act of bribery. This pleasure yielding offer allows for release (Freud, p. 5-7). Art allows for the conveying of ideas, feelings, or personal meanings (Hetland, p.6). Developmental Psychologist Paul Harris has conducted studies that prove the development of one’s imagination is necessary for cognitive development and normal adult functioning.[5] It is necessary for young children to be given the opportunity, not only to think about pure fantasy, but to contemplate reality. Educational settings should strive to foster growth and learning, and the artistic experience has successfully demonstrated its achievement in providing growth and learning in the sensory, perceptual, and imaginative sense.
Secondly, figurative language, specifically the use of metaphors, allows one to learn how to better communicate with others. One person’s argument in support of this claim is Tolstoy. Tolstoy makes the argument that art is aesthetically valuable not because of the production of beauty, but because the emotional importance pivots on the value of communication-as-infection. Good metaphors cause the hearer to enter into a kind of relationship both with him who produced, or is communicating, the metaphor, and with all those who receive the same metaphoric idea.[6] Through this communication, metaphor fosters feelings of universality. When one communicates with others, one has the opportunity to learn from others as well as the chance to reflect internally. Humans as distinct individuals have personal preferences for things. Often these preferences can lead to criticism and judgment, but when strong communication skills are developed, individuals are able to reflect on their opinions in a constructive fashion, and from this, further their understanding of the world; By learning how to communicate effectively with others, one can learn to embrace problems of relevance within the world, and/or personal importance (Hetland, 6). Communication involves clarity, effectiveness, and poise that will only come with practice and it is for this reason that it is important such skills be instilled in educational institutes. Communication transforms consciousness into a public form, which is what representation is designed to do, and is necessary for individual growth (Eisner, 6-7). When children learn the importance and effectiveness of tone, body language, facial expressions, and other features of non-verbal language, children will gain an understanding of how to effectively develop into well-functioning human beings beyond the classroom. The relationship that forms through this social contribution and educational process allows for individuals to develop symbiotic relationships with others (Eisner, 7). Such various forms of communication allow for children to see the world in different ways. Such tropes are relevant to every aspect of the human condition; humanity depends on social harmony and understanding to function and live well, and metaphor has the ability to unite people with one another.
With these skills obtained, the individuals can begin to perceive and then produce aesthetic pieces with a purpose. Students are able to engage in forms of thinking that help them form connections between the form and content of metaphor. Related to the practice of problem solving, students obtain the knowledge of how to attack a problem from multiple perspectives. Metaphor is a stimulating and effective way of making students competent in exercising their logical thinking skills.
When thinking about the benefits that metaphor can provide, it is important to think about what the “outcomes” will be. It is important to take a look into the future and think about what skills are important for children to obtain in order for them to be successful in their adult years, and then think about ways in which educators can get their students to dive into their work, and increase concentration, which leads to an increase in success. Three things that are substantially important skills for children to obtain over the course of their educational years include the ability to develop their imagination, the ability to learn effective communication skills, and the ability to obtain problem solving skills. Language education allows for students to recognize what is “personal, distinctive, and even unique about themselves and their work” (Eisner, 44). Language education looks beyond what standardized tests articulate about an individual, and instead is about the creation of a “personal vision” (Eisner, 44). The classroom is demonstrated to provide a context in which students interact and in which mobility is possible (Eisner, 62). Through the use of metaphors, students are given the opportunity and the means to grow. Metaphors nourish the mind, and through achievement, students develop new attitudes and dispositions that will allow for them to continue learning throughout life (Eisner, 240).
[1] Eisner, Elliot W. The Arts and the Creation of Mind. New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 200? Print. Further reference to this text in parentheses (Eisner, p.#).
[2] Hetland, Louis, Ellen Winner, Shirley Veenema, Kimberly Sheridan. Studio Thinking: The Real Benefits of Visual Arts Education. New York: Teachers College Press, 2007. Further reference to this text in parentheses (Hetland, p.#).
[3] Price, Harry Edward. Music Education Research: an Anthology from the Journal of Research in Music Education. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference, 1998. Print. Further reference to this text in parentheses (Price, p.#).
[4] Ulman and Levy, eds. Art Therapy: Viewpoints. New York: Schocken Books. 1980. Further reference to this text in parentheses (Freud, p.#).
[5] Harris, Paul L. “Hard Work for the Imagination.” Play and development: Evolutionary, sociocultural, and functional perspectives. 205-225. Mahwah, NJ US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, 2006.PsycINFO. EBSCO. Web. 22 Apr. 2011. Further reference to this text in parentheses (Harris, p.#).
[6] Tolstoy, L. What is Art. London: Penguin Books, 1995. Further reference to this text in parentheses (Tolstoy, p. #).
Metaphor: Making the Abstract Concrete and Visual 