Introduction Revised

Now that I am in my second semester of writing my honors thesis, I have gone back to the very beginning, and have written my introduction. This has made me really focus on how I plan on bring my whole work together. When writing a paper that is 80+ pages, it is easy to get swept away from the real core of the paper. By writing my introduction at this time, I am now able to see which parts of my thesis need the most work. So, here is how my overall thesis will play out. Keep in mind this is a rough draft:

Introduction

The traditional theory of metaphor, which has persisted for twenty-five hundred years in the philosophical and literary tradition, treats metaphor as irrelevant to fundamental questions about the nature of the world and knowledge of it, but these traditional views must be challenged. Today, we live in a society with a great sense of social organization, and we continually communicate abstractly through the use of facial expressions and bodily gestures, as well as through the use of tropes, non-literal verbal extensions, specifically metaphor. Metaphors are unavoidable because they are built right into our language. In fact, they may be humanity’s primary mode of mental operation.

This paper is broken into three main sections, each of which works through various philosophical theories to try and answer the question of why metaphors are cognitively important. The first section addresses human and language evolution, and explores possible theories of explanation for why humans have abstract language. When thinking about human communication it is easy to understand why the first humans would have developed a word for “water,” or “poison.” This terminology was necessary in order for human ancestors to fulfill basic needs and keep out of harm’s way. However, language development did not end here. This same system of symbols continued to evolve, and gave rise to a higher level of communication that articulates abstract and intangible thoughts and ideas. The big questions seeking an answer in this section are, “why did human communication not stop at the basic level?” and “what was the language system trying to keep up with?”

It is argued that this cognitive shift occurred when humans began to develop a wider and deeper array of needs, and evolvement from less biological to more psychological needs. Social interaction is the pressure that selected for language, and when our ancestors began to learn language, symbols were also created. These symbols set the whole process of language evolution in motion, and today, children automatically acquire a mastery of these abstract thinking skills. This paper supports the argument that children become linguistically and culturally competent members of their community through interactions with their caregivers and other members of their community. This shows that language is proven necessary to consciously perceive and understand how every single human experience plays a crucial role in defining one’s reality.

The second part of this paper emphasizes the conclusion drawn in the first section, that metaphor is the foundation of our conceptual system. While we may lack an adequate account of metaphorical thought, there is a lot to be learned from this abstract way of thinking. Metaphors are not merely stylistic, but are also cognitively important. Metaphors are pervasive in everyday life – not just in language, but in thought and action. Conceptual metaphors allow for us to understand and experience one thing in terms of another. A commonly seen conceptual metaphor is “argument is war”. This metaphor shapes our language in the way we view argument as a battle to be won. In debates, teams “attack” the weak points of their opponents’ arguments, and in the end one team “wins” and the other “loses”. These metaphors are not only prevalent in our language, but we perceive and act in accordance with them.

Our human and language evolution has given rise to a language system that allows for humans to communicate about non-empirical concepts. Because of the close-knit relationship between metaphors and human cognition, people have the ability to communicate about abstract and intangible experiences. Metaphors facilitate the understanding of one conceptual domain, typically an abstract one, through expressions that relate to another, more familiar conceptual domain. For example, think of theories as buildings: we build a foundation for them, a framework, support them with strong arguments, hoping they will stand.

After gaining a higher understanding of how metaphors are important for the improvement of understanding at two ends – increasing our own knowledge and enabling us to deliver that knowledge to others – the paper moves into its third section. Here, the philosophy of education is introduced and theories about curriculum and the process of learning are explored. Metaphors as cognitive tools become powerful and important when looking at how they can shape and transform the classroom setting. When fitting, metaphor can successfully render the unfamiliar more familiar by helping to build ideas into structured wholes. It is in this sense that metaphor brings about learning. First, it is important for educators to ask themselves, “What is education?” For example, is it centered on growth or production? The best metaphor to use when thinking about education is “education is growth”, because this metaphor fosters the individuality and creativity of students. This is in contrast with “education is production”, which views students as mere objects being sent down an assembly line. This model results in educators playing a more passive role in students’ education. Teachers follow a structured curriculum and implement material that has already been set for the students to learn, rather than actively working to enhance their own curriculum, which could more effectively meet the individual needs of students.

The paper then moves to explain how once educators have an understanding of the best way to view the education system, they can then strategize how to use metaphors in their teaching and learning environments. The usage of metaphor in the classroom can be a powerful pedagogical approach, specifically because metaphors help shape behavior. Curriculums which support and encourage the usage of metaphors have been shown to enhance student learning through the increased retention of material by assisting with the understanding of complex ideas and topics. Metaphor allows for the teacher to convey a potentially unfamiliar concept by relating it to a concept all students are familiar with. This usage of metaphors as teaching tools allows students to recognize patterns and draw connections between ideas. When students are able to more easily comprehend the subject matter at hand, they can then pursue further interest and investigation of the subject matter. Through the use of metaphors in the classroom, students of all socioeconomic backgrounds can succeed and grow as individuals. Most students can better explain and understand themselves and those around them. Students can gain strategies for how to better reason, create, and explore in their surroundings. They can then perceive, interpret, and enhance their understanding of the unfamiliar.

Today, it is important to think about future outcomes. Our society remains faced with challenges that need addressing. The achievement gap between the “haves” and the “have-nots” continues to grow across our country, and this deficit is attributed to the issue of the “literacy gap”. Research studies indicate that an estimated 32 million adults in the United States – about one in seven – have such low literacy skills that it is tough for them to read and comprehend anything more challenging than a children’s picture book. The big question for educators and others interested in curriculum development is, “What can we do?”  Something needs to be done to reach out to minority, low-income, and ESL learners to bridge the gap and bring about feelings of universality in the classroom. If educators and policy makers do not act, history will only repeat itself; adults who lack adequate literacy skills are likely to be unemployed or earning only a subsistent wage. This leaves these adults unable to help their children prepare for school and support their learning at home.

Poverty does not cause illiteracy, but rather illiteracy causes poverty. This paper suggests that the gap can be bridged through the use of metaphors in the classroom. Metaphors allow for people to communicate feelings and experiences in a way that cannot be expressed in literal terms. By providing equal opportunity in education to all children, the next generation is sure to be empowered with the necessary skills for success in today’s advancing society. Metaphor is relevant to every aspect of the human condition, and therefore should be regarded as valuable in society.  With a handle on these facts, educators and policy makers can understand the struggles of our current time, and work towards building a stronger society, one child at a time.

Chapter 11: Teaching with Paradigms

Favorite Place on Campus to Study

 Before diving into discussion on how educators can use paradigms to help students comprehend course material more easily and readily, it helps to first define what exactly a paradigm is. A paradigm is something that serves as a model. When someone uses a paradigm, it shifts one’s way of thinking to another. For example, we can think about the paradigm-shift moving scientific theory from the Ptolemaic system (the idea that the earth is at the center of the universe) to the Copernican system (the idea that the sun is at the center of the universe), and the move from Newtonian physics to Relativity and Quantum Physics. As old beliefs became replaced by new paradigms, there was a change in the world view.  For millions of years, the world has been continually evolving, and there is no sign of this stopping.

While humans often try to resist difficult and inevitable change, there are ways in which society can learn through experience. Kuhn states that “awareness is prerequisite to all acceptable changes of theory.”[1] In order to keep up in society, we must change our mental perspectives and allow our consciousness to transform and transcend. We must become awakened as our consciousness grows more aware of inevitable change. The human mind is not something that is entirely restricted; it too can change as things in society change. It is for this reason that paradigms become an important concept to understand and embrace in teaching.

In the educational institution, teaching children how to construct paradigms allows for them to expand their understanding of certain everyday world issues. It is possible for educators to shape children’s behavior by having children role play to model good behavior. This idea relates to the traditional behavioral paradigm psychologist John Watson established, known as conditioning. Learning is believed to occur through a process of conditioning in the exercise of repetition, which leads to memorization. Based on the assumption that learning is a function of conditioning, it is believed to be possible to shape human behavior to any desired form. It is this assumption that leads educators to place aim on the mechanics of learning and learning strategies such as competition, fragmentation of content, learning for content, cultural uniformity, technologies of learning, behavioral outcomes, and so on.[2]  

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[1] Kuhn, Thomas, S., “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions”, Second Edition, Enlarged, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1970(1962) Further reference to this source in parentheses (Kuhn, p#).

[2] http://www.holisticeducator.com/behavioralparadigm.htm

Chapter 12: The Creation of Social Realities

Study, study, study

In The Republic Plato makes a strong attack against the language used in dramatic poetry. He believes the arts should be banished, and tries to convince his audience of this by emphasizing the negative implications he believes figurative language has. Plato begins by stating how dramatic poets do not really know what they are talking about; “poetry of that sort seems to be injurious to minds which do not possess the antidote in a knowledge of its real nature” (Plato, 324). Then, Plato continues on to explain that because such artists do not create a representation of true knowledge, what they do should not be taken seriously because there is no knowledge of great value. The discovery of truth can only be found through reason, not poetry, or any other art form.

Plato begins his appeal against the arts by defining the different Forms, ‘Form’ meaning the essential properties in an idea which constitute an object, such as a bed or a table. The maker of these ideas of beds and tables is God; such work is a “product of divine workmanship” (Plato, 326). Then, craftsmen (such as carpenters) create imitations, of namely beds and tables. These imitations made by the craftsmen are second-removed imitations from the truth. What the craftsmen make are not the Form or essential nature of Bed, but rather only a particular bed; craftsmen do not create the reality, but only resemble it (Plato, 326). Then, there are imitators who represent the products of the craftsmen. Like a painter, these imitators create only an image of these objects, a representation that is a long way from reality. The artist “knows nothing of the reality, but only the appearance” (Plato, 331). This is because the artist has the lowest level of experience, and therefore only grasps a small part of any object. Overall, the artist does not have the correct belief of the essential form, and therefore the artist’s representation holds no value.

Thinking back to the dramatic poet, a poet is believed to have the lowest level of experience and knowledge. The writer who uses metaphor and similes to articulate an idea is the furthest removed from grasping the truth of an object. The user is the one who knows the most about the performance of something he uses, and it is the user who can report on an object’s good or bad qualities to the maker (Plato, 332). Then the maker has the next highest level of knowledge, because he understands the use for which something is made or designed by nature (Plato, 332). The poets are ignorant and only makers of images. They do not know the truth about the original topics about which they speak of, and this creates problems, specifically psychological problems.

Plato addresses the problems the arts create and makes three main arguments against the arts, specifically dramatic poetry: The arts do not provide any knowledge or value, the arts undermine thinking, and the arts undermine the development of good character.

First, art, specifically poetry, does not provide any knowledge or value because it is so far from the truth of reality. Instead of benefiting one, it actually can cause harm in that it can create illusions. Plato makes the analogy of how an object seen in the distance does not look the same size as the same object close at hand (Plato, 334). The eyes are vulnerable to having tricks played upon them, and for this reason the work of the artist cannot be trusted as possibly providing useful insight.

Next, representational art moves away from the truth, and instead evokes strong emotions. There is a quarrel between reason and emotion, especially in the case of human suffering, specifically a parent’s loss of a child. A good person would not allow himself to be seen when in pain because he would be ashamed to make a scene. He suppresses his impulses, allowing for reason to decide what the right move to make is (Plato, 336). Art makes humans want to create a split between thinking and feeling, but Plato believes one cannot separate these two entities. Instead of acting impulsively on emotions, one must maintain a calm and wise mentality. It is only with a harmonic soul that one can clearly see the truth and act rationally. For this reason, Plato believes strongly that education should be about developing, not about expressing.

Lastly, Plato extends his argument against dramatic poetry further to say that by “encouraging the sympathetic indulgence of emotions which we are ashamed to give way to in our lives” one undermines character (Plato, 337). Art has the capability of evoking strong emotions, and it is possible for these emotions to have a strong affect on the viewer; “to enter into another’s feelings must have an effect on our own” (Plato, 338). These emotions people are exposed to could cause one to acquire personality traits which are diminishing to character. “Poetic representation of love and anger and all those desires and feelings of pleasure or pain which accompany our every action” have the potential to cause a loss of control (Plato, 338).

Plato makes these arguments in attempt to make one aware of the danger the human soul is put in when exposed to art, in particular dramatic poetry. It is his concern that humanity will not lend an ear and learn to distinguish truth from reality.

However, while Plato’s argument against the arts, more narrowly figurative language, may be thorough and sound convincing in some ways, there is more to figurative language than its use as an ornamental/aesthetic device. Figurative language, specifically metaphor, has particular positive roles in human development.

The use of language, specifically analogies and metaphor, is intelligible and comprehensible; metaphor helps to bridge the gap between people of different backgrounds, because it allows for ideas to be communicated in a way anyone can understand. Metaphor ultimately communicates feelings and experiences in a way which cannot be expressed in literal terms. Through this communication, metaphor fosters feelings of universality. Metaphor is relevant to every aspect of the human condition, and therefore should be regarded as valuable in society. Humanity depends on social harmony and understanding to function and live well, and metaphor has the ability to unite people with one another.

Language is a significant part of childhood development for numerous reasons, specifically figurative language. Figurative language provides one with intuitive knowledge, the kind of knowledge that is not obtained by standard logical reasoning. This form of “artistry consists in having an idea worth expressing, the imaginative ability needed to conceive of how, the technical skills needed to work effectively with some material, and the sensibilities needed to make the delicate adjustments that will give the forms the moving qualities that the best of them possess.”[1] This form of knowledge is important to each individual, and children should be exposed to this experience in the educational setting. First, figurative language, specifically metaphor, helps to stimulate the imagination; secondly, one’s ability to construct metaphors enhances strong communication skills; and lastly, learning to develop this craft teaches important life skills, especially critical thinking and problem solving.

Thinking about metaphor in terms of it serving as an aesthetic/ornamental device, one can think about the implications metaphor can have on a child’s imagination. Through the imagination children can stretch and explore; children can “learn to reach beyond one’s capacities, to explore playfully without a preconceived plan, and to embrace the opportunity to learn from mistakes and accidents.” [2] By using one’s imagination to then create metaphor is credited with having positive psychological effects. Kant, a well recognized philosopher articulates that a “productive” imagination brings sensation and understanding together, therein creating a “second nature out of the material supplied to it by actual nature.[3] To better understand these implications it is helpful to turn to Freud’s psychoanalytic studies. Freud claimed one who has creative insight has the ability to “objectify and universalize his fantasies in his artworks.”[4] This form of artistic expression surpasses anything that is seen or heard. The process is an attempt for the speaker to fulfill a desire, and works like this: While making art the artist knows he is in a fantasy world, but through art one is able to return to reality. The artist does this by first making the fantasy into a work of art by stripping the original fantasy of all its personal and egocentric qualities. Then, through elaboration, the artist’s fantasies are transformed into a new kind of reality. Finally, the last step in breaking down the barrier between the artist’s ego and those of others is an act of bribery. This pleasure yielding offer allows for release (Freud, p. 5-7). Art allows for the conveying of ideas, feelings, or personal meanings (Hetland, p.6). Developmental Psychologist Paul Harris has conducted studies that prove the development of one’s imagination is necessary for cognitive development and normal adult functioning.[5] It is necessary for young children to be given the opportunity, not only to think about pure fantasy, but to contemplate reality. Educational settings should strive to foster growth and learning, and the artistic experience has successfully demonstrated its achievement in providing growth and learning in the sensory, perceptual, and imaginative sense.

Secondly, figurative language, specifically the use of metaphors, allows one to learn how to better communicate with others. One person’s argument in support of this claim is Tolstoy. Tolstoy makes the argument that art is aesthetically valuable not because of the production of beauty, but because the emotional importance pivots on the value of communication-as-infection. Good metaphors cause the hearer to enter into a kind of relationship both with him who produced, or is communicating, the metaphor, and with all those who receive the same metaphoric idea.[6] Through this communication, metaphor fosters feelings of universality. When one communicates with others, one has the opportunity to learn from others as well as the chance to reflect internally. Humans as distinct individuals have personal preferences for things. Often these preferences can lead to criticism and judgment, but when strong communication skills are developed, individuals are able to reflect on their opinions in a constructive fashion, and from this, further their understanding of the world; By learning how to communicate effectively with others, one can learn to embrace problems of relevance within the world, and/or personal importance (Hetland, 6). Communication involves clarity, effectiveness, and poise that will only come with practice and it is for this reason that it is important such skills be instilled in educational institutes. Communication transforms consciousness into a public form, which is what representation is designed to do, and is necessary for individual growth (Eisner, 6-7). When children learn the importance and effectiveness of tone, body language, facial expressions, and other features of non-verbal language, children will gain an understanding of how to effectively develop into well-functioning human beings beyond the classroom. The relationship that forms through this social contribution and educational process allows for individuals to develop symbiotic relationships with others (Eisner, 7). Such various forms of communication allow for children to see the world in different ways. Such tropes are relevant to every aspect of the human condition; humanity depends on social harmony and understanding to function and live well, and metaphor has the ability to unite people with one another.

With these skills obtained, the individuals can begin to perceive and then produce aesthetic pieces with a purpose. Students are able to engage in forms of thinking that help them form connections between the form and content of metaphor. Related to the practice of problem solving, students obtain the knowledge of how to attack a problem from multiple perspectives. Metaphor is a stimulating and effective way of making students competent in exercising their logical thinking skills.

When thinking about the benefits that metaphor can provide, it is important to think about what the “outcomes” will be. It is important to take a look into the future and think about what skills are important for children to obtain in order for them to be successful in their adult years, and then think about ways in which educators can get their students to dive into their work, and increase concentration, which leads to an increase in success. Three things that are substantially important skills for children to obtain over the course of their educational years include the ability to develop their imagination, the ability to learn effective communication skills, and the ability to obtain problem solving skills. Language education allows for students to recognize what is “personal, distinctive, and even unique about themselves and their work” (Eisner, 44). Language education looks beyond what standardized tests articulate about an individual, and instead is about the creation of a “personal vision” (Eisner, 44). The classroom is demonstrated to provide a context in which students interact and in which mobility is possible (Eisner, 62). Through the use of metaphors, students are given the opportunity and the means to grow. Metaphors nourish the mind, and through achievement, students develop new attitudes and dispositions that will allow for them to continue learning throughout life (Eisner, 240).

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[1] Eisner, Elliot W. The Arts and the Creation of Mind. New Haven, CT: Yale UP, 200?  Print. Further reference to this text in parentheses (Eisner, p.#).

[2] Hetland, Louis, Ellen Winner, Shirley Veenema, Kimberly Sheridan. Studio Thinking: The Real Benefits of Visual Arts Education. New York: Teachers College Press, 2007. Further reference to this text in parentheses (Hetland, p.#).

[3] Price, Harry Edward. Music Education Research: an Anthology from the Journal of Research in Music Education. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference, 1998. Print. Further reference to this text in parentheses (Price, p.#).

[4] Ulman and Levy, eds. Art Therapy: Viewpoints. New York: Schocken Books. 1980. Further reference to this text in parentheses (Freud, p.#).

[5] Harris, Paul L. “Hard Work for the Imagination.” Play and development: Evolutionary, sociocultural, and functional perspectives. 205-225. Mahwah, NJ US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, 2006.PsycINFO. EBSCO. Web. 22 Apr. 2011. Further reference to this text in parentheses (Harris, p.#).

[6] Tolstoy, L. What is Art. London: Penguin Books, 1995. Further reference to this text in parentheses (Tolstoy, p. #).

Chapter 9: Strengthening the Core

Hume and Tea Time

 

The improvement of understanding is for two ends: first, our own increase of knowledge; secondly, to enable us to deliver that knowledge to others. 

– John Locke

 

Education is a time for wonder and reflection, a time for creativity responsibility, problem-solving, and self-motivation. It is the role of the educator to ensure all students receive and understand the necessary skills for today’s competitive and complex world. For educators, to be able to achieve in preparing their students for life after school, it is first necessary to recognize the fact that “language is undoubtedly at the heart of learning”; “language has now replaced IQ as an explanation for social and education disadvantage.”[1] An educator plays an important role in a child’s development, and can significantly make a difference in the lives of children who come from poor families. Every child, with few exceptions, learns how to talk. However, the social and linguistic environments surrounding children as they begin to acquire language competence greatly differs cross-culturally. Educators need to recognize the role they play in bridging the gap between the use of language at home and in school. I believe literacy is one of the most important skills children need to learn in school in order to be successful in today’s developed world, and from this, I feel I can accurately state that skills in reading and writing are necessary for effective communication. This is where I believe the role of metaphor comes into play. The role of metaphor can be understood on two different levels: First, educators must recognize how metaphor helps to define one’s teaching philosophy. Metaphor helps to establish teacher-student relationships and helps in the organization of the classroom. Secondly, educators should recognize that metaphors are a powerful tool in linking unfamiliar ideas with the familiar. Analogies are an effective learning tool for reinforcing thinking skills and conceptual understanding. The in-depth analysis of metaphors’ role in students’ learning illustrates how metaphor is at the core of student achievement.

Before diving into discussion of metaphor, I think it is first important to provide some background information on what children come into the school system at a disadvantage. Studies done have shown that certain factors do not correlate with language learning. For example, race and gender do not affect a child’s ability to develop language and literacy skills. However, economic advantage plays a crucial role in children’s verbal communication development. The basic finding is this: Children growing up in less economically advantaged homes are exposed to a smaller vocabulary and have fewer interactions with people in comparison to more economically advantaged children. It is crucial for schools to provide an environment where children from all family backgrounds are exposed to rich language and exposed to the uses and functions of various prints. Children reared in poverty are exposed to fewer opportunities for experiences of many kinds, language just being one of them, and it takes this realization to understand why the education system needs to make an effort to help improve the language and cognitive performance of these less advantaged children.

To understand what creates this difference it helps to look into some studies that have been conducted: In 1995, Betty Hart and Todd R. Risley conducted a study on “ordinary families” and how they talk to their young children. The study focused specifically on how social interactions affect developmental growth. Evidence indicates that despite the strong efforts from preschool programs to equalize opportunity, children from less economically advantaged families fall behind their peers later in school. This is due to stunted vocabulary growth due to limited social interaction amongst parents and children in welfare families versus the amount of communication that takes place between parents and children of professional families.

A vocabulary, the stack of words (or signs) available to a person or a language community, comprises all the words a person knows, both those a person can understand and use appropriately. [2]  Words are added to the vocabulary through experiences. These experiences also allow for the refinement or elaboration of meanings of known words. A person’s vocabulary is something that continues to grow throughout life as an individual has new experiences and gains understanding. “The more often a child hears different words, the more varied are the associated experiences and the more the meanings of the words for the child come to match the range and nuances of the meanings of the words for the speaker and the culture” (Hart and Risley, 98). The vocabulary terms parents use when they interact with their children set the foundations for the complex concepts and relationships the children will be asked to understand later on. “Children’s experiences with language cannot be separated from their experiences with interaction because parent-child talk is saturated with affect” (Hart and Risley, 101). Characteristics of language, such as tone and sound patterns, are captured by children even before they begin using words. As children develop, the exposure they have had to language shapes their motivation to learn and use words.

Hart and Riley recognized that the vocabulary an individual has reflects their intellectual resources, and for this reason rather than using an IQ test as a measurement tool, they used vocabulary growth. The measurement of vocabulary growth versus the measure of intelligence with an IQ test is culturally unbiased, allows for the obtainment of repeated measures without the child memorizing test questions, and allows for testers to infer from the child’s use of a word in context what the child took to be the meaning of the word (Hart and Risley, 6).

Hart and Riley began their study by recording each month – for 2 ½ years – one full hour of every word spoken at home between parent and child in 42 families. These families had been categorized as professional working class or welfare families. Following the recording stage came years of coding and analyzing every utterance in the 1,318 transcripts. The data from successive observations were displayed for each child as a developmental trajectory, or a cumulative vocabulary growth curve (Hart and Risley, 7).

Findings showed that by age 3, the spoken vocabularies of the children from the professional families were larger than those of the parents in welfare families. For all 42 parents, the average number of utterances to the child per hour was 341 utterances. “The parents in the professional families addressed an average of 487 utterances to the child per hour in contrast to the average of 178 utterances addressed to the child by the parents in families on welfare, and the average of 301 utterances addressed to the child in the 23 working-class families” (Hart and Risley, 66). This is a difference of almost 300 words spoken per hour between professional and welfare parents. If this number is transferred into the number of words a child would hear per year, a child in a professional family would hear 11 million words; a child in a welfare family would only hear 3 million words.

Follow-up studies done age 9, show that children’s language experience is tightly linked to large differences in child outcomes. Vocabulary growth rates were strongly associated with rates of cognitive growth. This seemed to predict that in high school many children from impoverished families lack the necessary vocabulary to understand more advanced textbooks (Hart and Risley, 11). Hart and Risley realized the goal of their intervention needed to be changing the developmental trajectory; the rate at which welfare children added words to their dictionaries in daily use needed to be accelerated. Slow vocabulary growth rates are not due merely to the lack of extensive and varied experiences, but due to a lack of adult mediation.

For this reason, “the clear message here is that the welfare of poor children can only be served by enhancing the experiences they receive at home – by making the vocabulary and language they will need for expression and interpretation, in the wider contexts of their lives, available to them from those who are for them and also care about them” (Hart and Risley, xiii).

Hart and Risley calculated that in order for welfare children to receive language experience equal to that of working-class children, the welfare children would need to receive 63,000 words per week of additional language experience (Hart and Risley, 201). “Just to provide an average welfare child with an amount of weekly language experience equal to that of an average working-class child would require 41 hours per week of out-of-home experience as rich in words addressed to the child as that in an average professional home” (Hart and Risley, 201). What needs to be done to make this happen? A national commitment needs to be made to support and provide a voice to those who are left at a disadvantage.

However, for the purpose of this paper, I think it helps to focus on a more micro level, and to think about what strategies are effective and ineffective at helping to give these struggling children a boost within the classroom setting. This is where we need to look at the first metaphoric level – the first part of being a good teacher comes from recognizing the role metaphor plays in shaping one’s teaching philosophy. There are various metaphors often used when discussing education. A common metaphor that comes up is “education is growth.” Thinkers such as Rousseau and Herbart, argue that students need to be nurtured and given the opportunity to learn in their own ways at their own pace, and if given the proper sustenance, they will act morally according to their own free will.[3] This metaphor identifies how an educator can either help or hinder a child’s learning experience. An educator can think of him/herself as a gardener and his/her students can be thought of as plants. With sunlight, good soil, and water, seedlings will grow tall and strong and blossom into colorful flowers; with the right amount of instruction, advising, and encouragement, students will grow internally.

One metaphor that I created to use when thinking about education is “education is a ship”. If education is the ship, then the teacher is the wind and the students are the sails. This metaphor identifies how an educator has the power to direct a child’s learning, and with the right amount of positive reinforcement, the time a student spends in the classroom can be “smooth sailing”.

It helps to look at Psychologist Lev Vygotsky’s social learning theory to better understand how educator’s can help children’s learning and cognitive development. According to Vygotsky, the most important learning by the child occurs through social interaction with a skillful mentor. The mentor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal instructions for the child. The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions given, and then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate his/her own performance.[4] Vygotsky suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers within the zone of proximal development. He believed when a student is at the zone of proximal development for a certain task, providing the appropriate amount of assistance, scaffolding, will give the student the necessary “boost” to achieve the task. The scaffolding can be removed once the student masters the task and can complete the task again on his/her own.[5]

As John Locke said, the human mind is a blank slate, and therefore educators furnish it with ideas to think on.[6] Humans are not born with full-fledged ideas in their heads, but rather slowly form them through the sensory input of the material world. In thinking about language, educators fill the minds of their students with the skills necessary to understand the structures of a text, assess the logic of an argument, and develop and awareness of how language is consciously deployed to achieve meaning and input.[7]

Now that we have established the role educators play in helping children develop, we can think about what strategies educators can use to help render the unfamiliar more familiar to their students.

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[1] Romaine, 167

[2] Hart, Betty, and Todd R. Risley. Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children. Baltimore: P.H. Brookes, 1995. Print. Further reference to this source in parentheses (Hart and Risley, p#).

[3] Cook-Sather, pp. 49-50

[4] http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html

[5] http://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html

[6] Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Book II Ch1

[7] CCSS

Chapter 8: What Communication Skills Can Teach Us

My Grandmother’s Book Collection

We speak to be heard and need to be heard in order to be understood

~Roman Jakobson

Everyday references to communication are based on a ‘transmission’ model in which a sender transmits a message to a receiver – a formula that reduces meaning to explicit ‘content’ that resides within the text and is then delivered like a package.[1]This model allows for the conveyance of information through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information by way of speech, signals, writing, or forms of behavior. For the purpose of this chapter, we will focus solely on verbal communication. It is through this focus on verbal communication that one can understand the benefits of good communication. Good communication allows for the reduction of conflict, greater confidence and therein greater persuasiveness in the speaker, the building of stronger relationships, and allows one to discover new ideas.

Below, one can see Saussure’s model of oral communication. This linear transmission model exemplifies how the speaker’s role is ‘active’ and the listener’s role is ‘passive’ (Chandler, p.179). His model was based on the notion that comprehension on the part of the listener mirrors the speaker’s initial process of expressing a thought (Chandler, p.180).

Saussure’s Model of Oral Communication

In 1960, Roman Jakobson proposed another model of verbal communication, an interpersonal verbal communication model which moved beyond the basic transmission model of communication. He outlines what he considers the six ‘constitutive factors…in any act of verbal communication’:

 The addresser sends a message to the addressee. To be operative the message requires a context referred to (‘referent’ in another, somewhat ambivalent, nomenclature), seizable by the addressee, and either verbal or capable of being verbalized, a code fully, or at least partially, common to the addresser and addressee (or in other words, to the encoder and decoder of the message); and finally, a contact, a physical channel and psychological connection between the addresser and the addressee, enabling both of them to stay in communication.

                                                                                                            (Jakobson 1960, 353)

Jakobson established the principle that one cannot make sense of signs without relating them to relevant codes (Chandler, p.181).

Saussure’s model excludes reference to the social world. Jakobson’s model, on the other hand, acknowledges the importance of the context involved in speech events (Chandler, p.182). He recognized the importance of both ‘the place occupied by the given messages within the context of surrounding messages…and…the relation of the given message to the universe of discourse.’[2]

Now that we understand the processes of encoding and decoding and contexts are central features when it comes to the determination of meanings, one can get a better understanding of how to effectively communicate a thought or idea. In order to be successful, effective communication skills are important. They are important both in the work force and in day-to-day life.

First, good communication skills help in reducing conflict. This can be between a parent a child, boss and co-worker, or even a teacher and student. What is important to recognize is that this conflict typically comes from misunderstanding. Teachers often run into this problem when trying to communicate with young children. Shy students or young preschoolers in particular often struggle to communicate because of speech problems or other impairments. Teachers should spend time talking with each student individually for a few minutes each day. Simple conversations about the child’s pets or siblings can help the student to feel more comfortable and help him/her to develop a dialogue. It is also important for teachers to talk to students as a class when explaining projects, and a good idea to encourage students to raise their hands if they have any questions. In order for children to understand how to converse, they must practice two-way conversation. Then, it is also a good idea to have the child repeat the assigned task. This will ensure that the child has heard the teacher and that there is no confusion. When one becomes an effective communicator, one can resolve conflict and create harmony by bridging the communication gap.

Good communication also allows for an increase in confidence in the speaker, which in turn allows for the speaker to develop greater persuasiveness. When one communicates effectively in ways people instinctively understand, people are more likely to help and provide one with necessary resources. Communicating effectively not only includes audible and understandable verbal language, but it includes good posture and polish. Standing up straight when speaking and maintaining good eye contact with one’s audience, are crucial public speaking elements. In terms of polish, there are various factors that come into play. A talented speaker has a way with words, and knows how to engage his audience. For example, humor and anecdotes are creative qualities that will cause the speaker to stick out in the listeners’ minds.

Effective communication also allows for the building of stronger relationships, both in business and one’s personal life. One learns and understands exactly what people want and how one can give it to them; people begin to instinctively understand one another.

Lastly, good communication skills allows for the discovery of what people want and need. Once one knows what people want and need, one can then work towards helping to match these needs. Specifically in the business world, this allows for greater cooperative efforts.

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[1] Daniel Chandler. The Basics.

[2] Jakobson 1968, 697).

Chapter 7: Metaphor: Making the Abstract Concrete and Visual

Multi-Tasking at its Finest: Working on My Honors Project while Waiting for the Electoral Votes to Come In

 

A symbol, once in being, spreads among the peoples. In use and in experience, its meaning grows. Such words as force, law, wealth, marriage, bear for us very different meanings from those they bore to our barbarous ancestors (Charles Pierce)

 

Introduction

Now we are finally arriving at the core of this paper, where one will be able to gain an understanding of the motivations for metaphorical communication. By specifically focusing on the purpose conceptual metaphors serve in today’s society, one will also gain an understanding of how the mind and body, the physical and mental essences, work together to shape the way humans think and act. By the end of this second part one should have a full understanding of why communication could not stop at the basic level and the role metaphor plays in our human existence.

 

Metaphor and the Synchronization of Mind and Body

I think it helps to begin discussion with an explanation of what goes on inside each individual’s brain that allows for one to conceptualize in such an abstract manner. To understand what is going on it helps to look at a study done by the German-American psychologist Wolfgang Köhler in 1929. In 1929, Köhler demonstrated that the human brain is able to extract abstract properties from shapes and sounds.[1] When he showed islanders two shapes, one round and amoeboid and the other sharp and spiky, and then asked them to associate the words “takete” and “baluba” with the shapes, he discovered the majority of participants associated “takete” with the sharp, spiky shape and “baluba” with the round, amoeboid shape (Geary, 80). It is the instinctive ability to make associations like this that helps explain why metaphors typically “take the commonly shared world of physical sensation as their source and the private, abstract world of ideas, feelings, thoughts, and emotions as their target” (Geary, 82). For a further example, think about the words “light” and “dark” and how they affect one’s opinion when associated with someone’s personality: a sunny person is typically characterized as someone who is happy and cheerful. In contrast, someone who is gloomy is characterized as being sad and depressed. These types of metaphors begin to create consistent patterns. The words we use for everyday experiences, physical things, and sensations become used to describe abstract thoughts, feelings, emotions, and ideas (Geary, 78-79).

 

Conceptual Metaphor

There is such a close-knit relationship between human cognition and metaphor because mind and body are not separate metaphysical entities. For this reason, everything appears to come down to human reason and the duality between mind and body. Physical experience and perception are both basic and shared between humans and human mental states are less readily communicable than physical ones (Sweetser, 719). To better understand the synchronization of mind and body, it helps to unravel what conceptual metaphors are. Conceptual metaphors allow us to “conceptualize one domain of experience in terms of another” (Flesh, 91). Because of their literal, basic level- entailments, conceptual metaphors allow us to conceptualize and comprehend our experiences, and then communicate them.

 

Time

Take for example the abstract concept of time. Time is not a concept that can be conceptualized on its own terms; it must be conceptualized metaphorically. Think about how humans orient themselves in space and time. “The most basic metaphor for time has an observer at the present who is facing toward the future, with the past behind the observer” (Flesh, 140). From this conceptualization, humans can talk and reason about the here and now because the observer’s physical location serves as a reference point for the words preceding and following (Flesh, 143).

 

Argument is War

One commonly used conceptual metaphor is argument is war. “Words are weapons in this verbal combat: sharp-tongued people make cutting remarks, for example, and sticks and stones may break my bones, but words will never hurt me seems to be a formulaic attempt to assert the metaphorical rather than literal status of such weapons.”[2]

Humans perceive and act in accordance with the metaphors. Continuing with the theme of argument is war, one can see the parallel made between combat and conversation; “one may verbally and psychologically, without physical intervention, push someone into something, drag someone unwillingly into a situation, pull someone out of trouble, give someone a (verbal) nudge (= a reminder) slap someone’s wrist (= reprove someone mildly), and so forth” (Sweetser, 718). Humans plan and use strategies in order to try and win verbal arguments. It is hard to imagine a culture where the metaphorical concept argument is war is not used to structure what humans do and how humans understand what they are doing when they argue; try and imagine a culture where no one ever wins or loses, where there is no sense of attacking or defending. These people would view arguing differently, if they even had a perception of argumentation at all. American culture has a form of discourse structured in terms of battle, and this discourse demonstrates how metaphors allow for the perception of one thing in terms of another. These conceptual arguments serve the purpose of shaping understanding; the construction of these arguments shows the connections between things that are and things that are not obvious by putting ideas together.

 

Summary

These various defining concepts (e.g. journeys, war, health, etc) emerge from the interactions between human beings, and the concept they metaphorically define (e.g. love) is understood in terms of interactional properties.[3] This identifies how metaphors are grounded in human interactions with the physical and cultural environment. Reason and concepts therefore are not transcendent – not utterly independent of the body (Flesh, 128). The traditional theory of metaphor, which has persisted for twenty-five hundred years in the philosophical and literary tradition, treats metaphor as irrelevant to fundamental questions about the nature of the world and knowledge of it, but these traditional views must be challenged.[4] Metaphors are imaginative and creative, but the irony is that they are necessary for the conceptualization of the real (Flesh, 14). Truth is always relative to a conceptual system that is defined by the metaphor (Lakoff, 3). Therefore, since the primary role of language is to express and communicate basic truths about the world, these metaphors are proven to be necessary.

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[1] I Is An Other (Geary, 81)

[2] Sweetser, Eve E. “English Metaphors for Language: Motivations, Conventions, and Creativity.” Poetics Today 13.4 (1992): 705-24. JSTOR. Web. 10 Mar. 2012. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/1773295&gt;. Further reference to this source in parentheses (Sweetser, p.#).

[3] Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live by. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1980. Print. Further reference to this source in parentheses (Lakoff, p.#).

[4] Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and Its Challenge to Western Thought. New York: Basic, 1999. Print. Further reference to this source in parentheses (Flesh, p.#).

Chapter 6: A Symbolic Language: A Look at How Tropes Influence Human Communication

The Search for Peace

 

Symbols carry a life-enhancing ability, and when one is tuned in to what these symbols have to offer, the symbol becomes “pregnant with meaning” and shapes one’s reality

~ Anthony Stevens, Ariadne’s Clue: a Guide to the Symbols of Humankind

 

Non-Verbal Communication

The communicative function is a powerful one. It is not a simple, one layered, linear process. Humans in addition to communicating at the literal level, have the ability to transmit signals by means other than spoken or written words. They achieve this non-verbal communication through the use of facial expressions and bodily gestures, as well as through non-literal verbal extensions with a logical component, called tropes. [1] Human beings appear to unconsciously use these non-literal methods of communication. In many instances, it appears evident that the body communicates more strongly than the mind, without the mind even being aware of the body’s innate power over reason. Human societies need this form of communication in order to represent the ways things in the world are; communication in the non-literal sense is a process of rendering the unfamiliar more familiar.

There are various forms of non-verbal communication Some forms include: paralanguage, which refers to sounds that sometimes do not have a written form (e.g. uh-huh means Yes, or I am listening); kinesics, or body language (e.g. eye contact); proxemics, which refers to how humans organize space (e.g. the intimate distance for embracing, touching or whispering); haptics, which refers to the sense of touch (e.g. in Spain, people greet each other with two kisses on the cheek); chronemics, which refers to time (e.g. when in a relationship to say, I love you); and artifacts, or communication with objects (e.g. jewelry, bumper stickers, food, etc.) (Salzmann, insert page#).

Kinesics:

To begin to understand this non-literal sense of communication it helps to first analyze the role kinesics plays in human societies. This powerful form of communication involves body language, and the way this is used to portray moods and emotions. “Ritualized gestures – the bow, the shrug, the smile, the wink, the military salute, the pointed finger, the thumbed nose, sticking out the tongue, and so on – are not really nonverbal communication, because such gestures are just a substitute for the verbal meanings that are associated with them.”[2] However, there are many spontaneous gestures and actions that are unconscious, and communicate a great deal; sometimes what a person is saying unconsciously by his actions directly contradicts what he is saying consciously with his words (Clark, 57). The best way to understand how this form of non-verbal communication works is to think about how body language is interpreted when one goes into an interview. There are various types of body movement one can conduct, which can portray a person as confident or insecure, enthusiastic or lazy. For example, something as simple as a handshake with an interviewer says a lot. A good firm hand shake is associated with an open-minded, less neurotic and shy personality in comparison to a weak handshake.[3] Words prove to not be the only way to effectively communicate; body movement has interpretative meaning as well.

Tropes:

Now, looking beyond body language, it is important to also look at the use of tropes in human societies. Tropes include: metaphor, a literary figure of speech that uses and image, story or tangible object to represent a less tangible object or some intangible quality or idea (e.g. Life as journey: some of us travel hopefully, others seem to have no direction, many lose their way); simile, a figure of speech that directly compares two different things, using the words like or as (e.g. life is like a box of chocolates – you never know what you are going to get); metonym, a figure of speech in which a thing or concept is not called by its own name, but by the name of something intimately associated with that thing or concept (e.g. the white house stands for the president); synecdoche, a figure of speech in which a term denoting one thing is used to refer to a related thing (e.g. executives being referred to as suits), myth, a traditional or legendary story; and metamorphosis (abrupt change in an animal’s body structure through cell growth and differentiation).

Metaphor:

For the purpose of this paper, metaphor will be the main focus. While the other types of tropes play important roles in human communication, metaphors can be viewed as people’s primary mode of mental operation. This is because of the major role metaphor plays in human reason. “Reason is not disembodied, as the tradition has largely held, but arises from the nature of our brains, bodies, and bodily experience” and this reason is “not purely literal, but largely metaphorical and imaginative.”[4]  In the following chapters one will learn about the important role metaphor plays in shaping our understanding of every day experiences.  In order to demonstrate this importance, there will be a specific focus on conceptual metaphors. Conceptual metaphor, which refers to the understanding of one idea, or conceptual domain, in terms of another (e.g. understanding quantity in terms of directionality – “prices are rising”).[5] These metaphors not only shape human communication, but shape the way humans think and act. It is through these metaphors that we can talk about our every day experiences.

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[1]  Salzmann, Zdenek. Language, Culture, & [and] Society: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology. Boulder: Westview, 1993. Print. Further reference to this source in parentheses (Salzmann, p.#).

[2] Clark, Virginia P., Paul A. Eschholz, and Alfred F. Rosa. Language: Introductory Readings. New York: St. Martin’s, 1977. Print. Further reference to this source in parentheses (Clark, p.#).

[3] LiveScience Staff. “Firm Handshakes Help Land Jobs.” Live Science. LiveScience.com, 6 May 2008. Web. 10 Mar. 2012. <http://www.livescience.com/7487-firm-handshakes-land-jobs.html&gt;. Further reference to this source in parentheses (LiveScience).

[4] Lakoff and Johnson. Philosophy in the Flesh. (4).

[5] “Conceptual Metaphor.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 4 Mar. 2012. Web. 10 Mar. 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_metaphor&gt;. Further reference to this source in parentheses (Conceptual Metaphor).

Chapter 1: What is Language?

Trigger Attempts to Help Me Read

 

Chapter 1:

What is Language?

So this is the real mystery: Even under these loosened criteria there are no simple languages used among other species, though there are many other equally or more complicated modes of communication. Why not? …. This is an apples and oranges problem, not a complicated-vs-simple one.

~Terrance Deacon

 

The Five Key Aspects of Language

The English word language derives from the Latin word, lingua, “tongue,” via Old French. It is easily understood as the communication system that enables humans to communicate with one another. However, language is no easy system. Not only is there more than one type of communication system, but there is so much that goes into the makeup of each cognitive faculty. There are animal languages, computer languages, and human languages. Each system has its own series of signs for encoding and decoding information.

However, the purpose of this paper is not to explore these different methods of communication at large, but rather to strictly explore and analyze how language communication is more complex amongst humans. Language is often thought about in terms of the written word, because when something is written down it becomes a permanent idea. However, in linguistics, speech is valued as being more central to human language. The human ability to speak is often taken for granted. The ability to communicate effectively with one another is actually quite an intricate mental ability, and researchers today still do not have all the answers to how such a skill is possible.

Then He Goes and Rolls

While there are multiple forms of non-verbal communication amongst the human species, such as: sign language, whistle and drum languages, the focus of this paper will be on the acoustic channel, the form of communication used whenever people speak to one another. The words we wish to express at a given moment seem to emerge inexplicably from a sender’s mouth, as sound waves. Then, these sound waves travel to and hit the listener’s ear. Once the sound waves have hit the listener’s ear, an auditory signal is sent to the brain, where it is interpreted. This model seems simple enough, but it takes more valuable information to understand how the process effectively works.

Linguists typically recognize five key aspects of language: “phonology, the sounds of language; morphology, the way words are built; syntax, the ordering of words and other grammatical bits into meaningful language; semantics, the meaning system of language; and pragmatics, the way speakers use words on the basis of social contexts.”[1] Once these main features of language are explained, the significance of language becomes more apparent.

Then Trigger Steals My Food!

Phonology

There is a complex relationship between words and sounds. Understanding phonetics requires and understanding of a particular language’s sound system, an understanding of what goes on in the mouth and throat to produce speech. Phonetics deals with measureable, physical properties of speech sounds themselves, for example, precisely how the mouth produces certain sounds, and the characteristics of the resulting sound waves. When discussing phonetics, it is important to remember the letters are not what matter, but rather individual speech sounds.

IPA Alphabet

A good place to start discussion of the language system is with the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. The IPA was first developed in 1886, but since then has undergone a number of revisions.[2] The aim of the IPA is to show pronunciation in a dictionary, to record a language in linguistic fieldwork, to form the basis of a writing system for a language, or to annotate acoustic and other displays in the analysis of speech (IPA, 3). Behind the IPA system are a few theoretical assumptions about speech: some aspects of speech are linguistically relevant, and others are not; speech can be represented partly as a sequence of discrete sounds (segments); segments can be divided into two major categories, consonants and vowels; the phonetic description of consonants and vowels can be made with reference to their auditory characteristics; and finally, some aspects of speech, such as stress and tone, need to be represented independently from segments (IPA, 4). These theoretical assumptions are further explored in this chapter, and a full chart of the IPA symbols can be viewed at the end of this chapter, but for now, it is easiest to focus simply on the symbols necessary to make the basic sounds of North America English, rather than to try and understand all the sounds of the world’s languages.

Vowels

It is difficult to try and understand the complex relationship between letters and sounds in the English language because in many instances, the same vowel sound is spelled differently. For example: heard, herd, turn.

Vowel sounds are produced with relatively free flow of air, and the tongue influences the ‘shape’ through which the airflow must pass. When talking about the place of articulation, linguists refer to the inside of the mouth as having a front versus a back and then a high versus a low area. Linguists would point out that vowel sounds are simply voiced air, meaning that when you produce these sounds, your vocal cords vibrate while you breathe across them. For example, the sound “EEE” is made with the tongue high in the front of one’s mouth, while the sound of “AHH” is made with the tongue low in the back of the mouth (Temple, 84). But this is only the beginning of the understanding of vowels.

There is then the difference between long and short vowels. This, for example, is the distinction between the sound represented by the letter a in mate (a long vowel sound) and the sound represented by the letter a in mat (a short vowel sound). With the pronunciation of each word, one’s mouth is doing something different. When one says a so called“long vowel,” one’s tongue muscles tense up. This is in contrast with what happens when one says a “short vowel.” When one pronounces mat, one’s tongue muscles relax. This is why linguists do not use the terms, long and short, but rather refer to the sound variations as tense and lax.

Now, there is something else Native English speakers do with their pronunciation of vowels that other languages do not do: They make double pronunciations of them (Temple, 85). Look for example at the word eye [aɪ̯]or same [seɪ̯m]. One might thing she is only pronouncing one vowel, such as the vowel “I,” but in fact, you actually run together “ah” and “ee.” These are called diphthongs.

One last common phenomenon in English but rare in other languages is vowel reduction (Temple, 85). In English, in words of more than one syllable, vowels in the unstressed syllable are called schwa; the vowel in the unstressed syllable is said to be reduced. For example, schwa corresponds to the ‘a’ in about [əˈbaʊt] and the ‘e’ in taken [ˈteɪkən].

Consonants

Another important part of phonetics to understand is what happens when breath flow is interrupted in some way. By using the tongue and other parts of the mouth to constrict and shape the oral cavity through which the air is passing, many different sounds can be created, and these various sounds are consonants. To describe the place of articulation of most consonant sounds, it makes sense to start at the front of the mouth and work back. When discussing place of articulation there are: bilabials, which are sounds formed using both upper and lower lips (e.g. pat, bat, mat); labiodentals, formed with the upper teeth and lower lip (e.g. Safe, save); dentals, formed with the tip of one’s tongue behind the upper front teeth (e.g. the, there, then); alveolars, formed with the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge (the bony ridge immediately behind and above the upper teeth) (e.g. the sound at the beginning of right and write); palatals, which are produced with the tongue and the palate (e..g. shout, child); velars, sounds produced with the back of the tongue against the velum (the soft palate) (e.g. car, cold); and finally, glottal, the one sound produced without the active use of the tongue and other parts of the mouth, which occurs when the glottis (the space between the vocal cords in the larynx) is open (e.g. the fist sound in who and whose) (Núñez).

The next big component in the discussion of consonants is the manner of articulation, which refers to the pronunciation of the sounds. When you momentarily stop the airstream and then let it go abruptly, you produce stop consonants or plosives, which are the sounds represented by [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g]; when you almost block the airstream and have the air push through the very narrow opening, a type of friction is produced and the resulting sounds are called fricatives, represented by, [f], [v], [θ], [d], [s], [z], [ʃ], [_]; if you combine a brief stopping of the airstream with an obstructed release, causing some friction, the sounds [tʃ] and [d_] are created, which are called affricates; nasals are described as the sounds [m], [n], and [ŋ], which occur when the velum is lowered and the airstream is allowed to flow out through the nose; glides, the sounds [w] and [j], are produced when the tongue is in motion to or from the position of a vowel; the glottal stop, represented by the symbol [ʔ], occurs when the space between the vocal cords is closed completely, then released; and lastly is the flap, represented by [D] or sometimes [ɾ] is produced by the tongue tip tapping the alveolar ridge briefly (Núñez).

Conclusion

Phonetic transcription, unlike orthography, displays a one-to-one relationship between symbols and sounds. The main purpose of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound, which allows for foreign language students and teachers, linguists, speech-language pathologists, singers, actors, translators, etc. to better step outside of orthography and examine differences in pronunciation between dialects within a given language, as well as to identity changes in pronunciation that take place over time.

Morphology

Morphology is the identification, analysis and description of the structure of a given language’s morphemes and other linguistic units. Words have parts, and each additional part provides a change to the original word, which creates a new meaning. Below three different kinds of morphemes are described:

Free Morphemes

A free morpheme is a morpheme that can stand alone as a word; it does not require another morpheme to be attached to it. For example, Cat would be a free morpheme.

Inflectional Morphemes

Inflectional morpheme is a morpheme that can only be a suffix. It creates the change in the function of a word. In English, there are seven inflectional morphemes: –s (plural) and –s (possessive) are noun inflections; –s (3^rd-person singular), –ed (past tense), –en (past participle), and –ing (present participle) are verb inflections; –er (comparative) and –est (superlative) are adjective and adverb inflections.

• Examples:
  • Plural: Many people own cats.
  • Possessive: Jane’s cat has stripes.
  • 3^rd Person Singular: She likes cats.
  • Past Tense: He liked cats.
  • Past Participle: The stolen cat was found unharmed by the police.
  • Present Participle: John told a very interesting story at dinner last night.
  • Comparative: A kitten is much smaller than an adult cat.
  • Superlative: The orange tabby cat was the smallest of the liter.

Derivational Morphemes

Derivational morphemes create a new word out of the word to which it is joined. The change can affect either the semantic meaning or part or part of speech. For example, when you attach -er to swim, you create the word swimmer. When you attach –ness to happy, you create the word happiness.

Conclusion

Understanding the role morphemes play in language acquisition is important in order to make connections between phonological and orthographic characteristics of speech. Without an understanding of the smallest unit in the grammar of a language, one can expect to be lost when trying to interpret larger concepts.

Syntax

Syntax, also referred to as grammar, refers to the set of rules that order words and their inflections meaningfully into sentences. Syntax can be understood as a type of code that allows speakers to encode meaning and for listeners to decode it (Temple, 96). Word order, parts of speech, and special uses of words all affect the meaning of a sentence or passage.

Conscious Knowledge

Syntax occurs at two levels: the conscious level and then the tacit knowledge level. At the conscious level, syntax can be thought of as the rules for how to build a sentence, such as the rule: a verb must agree with its subject in person and number. These rules throw us into a realm of technical notations. Suddenly, we are being asked to access and reiterate what a subject is, what a predicate is, and what other things are involved in constructing sentences.

Tacit Knowledge

However, this does not represent all the knowledge that allows one to produce and understand sentences. We all possess a highly intricate system that allows us to determine whether certain utterances correspond to sentences of our native language. This kind of knowledge, unattainable knowledge of language that allows one to judge whether or not a sentence is natively correct, is tacit knowledge. For example, look at these two sentences:

• A. This book is difficult to read.
• B. This book is difficult to be read.

One knows if one is a native English speaker that she can utter sentence A, and this corresponds to an English sentence. In contrast, a non-native English speaker can utter sentence, and while a message can be decoded from it, it does not correspond to any grammatically correct sentence of English. This kind of knowledge seems obvious, but not because of English lessons that are taught in a classroom; rather, because it is a sense of judgment acquired at a young age, that then becomes inaccessible to you.

Plato’s Problem

One might ask, so why do we call this knowledge at all? How can something be considered knowledge if nothing is being taught to anyone? Tacit knowledge appears to be more like instinct than knowledge. This discussion given the title, Plato’s Problem by Noam Chomsky, can be traced back to the fourth century BCE.[4] The argument is specifically seen in Plato’s Meno, in which Socrates demonstrates how an uneducated boy has innate knowledge, a priori knowledge, of geometric principles. Trying to close the gap between knowledge and experience involves working to explain the gap between what one knows and the apparent lack of input from experience, or the environment. Further discussion of this problem will be addressed in the next chapter, which deals explicitly with language acquisition in children.

Semantics

The third key component of language is semantics, best understood as the system of meanings in a language and the way those meanings are encoded in words (Temple, 100). Within this study of meanings, sounds, facial expressions, body language, and proxemics have semantic content. This is in contrast with syntax, which looks explicitly at the units of language without reference to their meaning. Semantic relations between words can be complex, but by going through some of the technical vocabulary that relates to semiotics, it should become a little easier to understand how words, phrases, signs, and symbols gain meaning.

Synonymy

Synonomy, in regards to meaning, refers to the degree of sameness between two terms. For example, eat and consume are two near-complete synonyms. In purely semantic terms, these two words mean the same thing (the ingestion of food), but their use depends on the context they are used in. Consume is more likely to be used by a person who is more intellectual, whereas eat is the more common word. One will find that English has a high number of synonyms because of French influence on the language.

Antonomy

Antonyms are binary oppositions, such as short and tall, big and little, right and wrong. The meaning of one term automatically rejects the other – someone who is short is not tall, someone who is big is not little, and someone who is right is not wrong. Another characteristic of antonyms is they can be gradable or not, depending on whether or not we attach inflectional morphemes to them to create a comparison: deep, deeper, deepest or, sunny, sunnier, sunniest.

Homophones, Homonyms, and Polysemes

Homophones are words that have a similar sound pattern, but are otherwise unrelated. The words may be spelled the same, such as wind (air movement) and wind (to move in a spiral course). Or, the words can be spelled differently. In this case they are also called heterographs. Examples of these include horse and hoarse; nun and none; buy and bye. Homophones are often used to create puns and to deceive the reader, seen in crossword puzzle clues, or to suggest multiple meanings, which are quite often seen in poetry and other forms of creative writing. Then there are also homonyms, which are terms that share the same spelling and the same pronunciation but have different meanings. Examples include: row (to propel with oars) and row (a line of arrangements); bark (the sound a dog makes) and bark (the outer layer of a tree trunk); bank (the edge of a river) and bank (a financial institution). Lastly there is a distinction to be made between homonyms, which are unrelated in origin, and polysemes, which have a shared origin, such as mouth (of a river) and mouth (of a person). For Dick Hebdife, polysemy means that, “each text is seen to generate a potentially infinite range of meanings.”[5] This, in the end changes the whole basis of creating social meaning.

Conceptual Metaphors

Now, discussion has moved away from basic language to an understanding of how descriptions are used to construct meaning. Based largely on ideas put forth by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in their book Metaphors We Live By, a conceptual metaphor is an expression from ordinary language in which the meaning associated with a target domain is drawn from a source domain that is perceived as sharing certain traits of the target.[6] A few examples are:

• “Anger is Heat”
  • He has a fiery temper.
  • She is about to explode!
  • “Love is a Journey”
    • This relationship isn’t going anywhere.
    • His marriage is on the rocks.

Conclusion

This is just the beginning of a complex discussion on how metaphors shape human lives. What at first appears as simple ordinary language soon is understood as transformative. “Language is what determines the meanings of words and signs and what combines them into meaningful wholes, wholes that add up to conversations, speeches, essays, epic poems. Language goes beyond that even; it’s what makes your thoughts truly meaningful, what builds your ideas into structured wholes.”[7]

Pragmatics

It can be understood at this point that language ability means more than making appropriate sounds, peaking in words, and stringing words together with understandable syntax. Hymes defined language as meaning having the ability to do things with words.[8] There is a distinction to be made between knowing language and knowing how to use language; linguists talk of language not only in terms of syntax and meaning, but also in terms of speech acts, which are attempts to accomplish things with language. This is one of the most challenging aspects of language learning, and often comes only through experience. Further discussion of pragmatics will take place later on in this paper, but for now, what is important to understand is pragmatics helps in overcoming language ambiguity, because meaning relies on the manner, place, time, etc. of an utterance.

Summary and Conclusion

With an in-depth analysis of the key aspects of language, one now has the necessary framework to begin exploration of more complex thinking. Next, one can look at children’s language-learning process. One will see how many children go through the stages of language learning in the same order, and thoughts behind this central human capacity will be discussed. Then, later on, one will see how when humans interact with one another, experiences are weaved into narratives, and special attention will be paid to words and their meaning.

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[1] Temple, Charles A. All Children Read: Teaching for Literacy in Today’s Diverse Classroom. Boston: Pearson and B, 2005. Print. Further reference to this source in parentheses (Temple, p#).

[2] Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge UP, 1999. Print. Further reference to this source in parentheses (IPA, pg#).

[3] Núñez, Alejandro. “Phonetics and Phonology.” Phonetics and Phonology. Blogspot.com, n.d. Web. 26 June 2012. <http://alejandronunez-a-3.blogspot.com/p/c-ipa.html&gt;. Further reference to this source in parentheses (Núñez).

[4] Chomsky, Noam. Modular Approaches to the Study of the Mind. San Diego: San Diego State UP, 1984. Print. Further reference to this source in parentheses (Chomsky, p#).

[5] Hebdige, Dick. Subculture, the Meaning of Style. London: Methuen, 1979. Print. Further reference to this source in parentheses (Hebdige, p#).

[6] Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live by. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1980. Print. Further reference to this source in parentheses (Lakoff and Johnson, p#).

[7] Bickerton, Derek. Adam’s Tongue: How Humans Made Language, How Language Made Humans. New York: Hill and Wang, 2010. Print. . Further reference to this source in parentheses (Bickerton, p.#).

[8] Hymes, Dell H. Foundations in Sociolinguistics; an Ethnographic Approach. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1974. Print. Further reference to this source in parentheses (Hymes, p#).

Abstract

Where Most of My Writing Happens

 

When thinking about human communication it is easy to understand why the first humans would have developed a word for “water,” or “poison.” This terminology was necessary in order for human ancestors to fulfill basic needs and keep out of harm’s way. However, language development did not end here. This same system of symbols continued to evolve, and gave rise to a higher level of communication that articulates abstract and intangible thoughts and ideas. Why did communication not stop at the basic level? What was the language system trying to keep up with? I believe this cognitive shift occurred when humans began to develop a wider and deeper array of needs, an evolvement from less biological to more psychological needs.

Our human ancestors realized in order to find enough food for everyone to eat they needed to break up into smaller groups and develop a way to communicate with one another. Foraging in small groups worked to our ancestors’ advantage, and a sense of community amongst members began to form.[1] Now that they were able to successfully stay safe and find sustenance, relationships began to grow amongst community members and our ancestors began to develop different kinds of needs, growth needs.[2] These needs refer to intangible things – cognition, aesthetic appreciation, and self-actualization (Maslow, 372). Our ancestors began to develop needs for belonging, love, and affection; a need of respect from others to gain confidence and self-esteem; a need of morality and creativity. In order for humans to reach the greatest level of personal potential and self-fulfillment, a more specialized system of language became required.

Today, we live in a society with a great sense of social organization, and we continually communicate abstractly through the use of facial expressions and bodily gestures, as well as through the use of tropes, non-literal verbal extensions. Thinking more narrowly about non-literal forms of communication, metaphor (a figure of speech that uses a tangible object to represent some intangible quality of one idea, in terms of another) is a major trope in human perception and action.[3] People have the ability to communicate about abstract and intangible experiences because there is a close-knit relationship between metaphors and human cognition. Metaphors help to synchronize mind and body, which is necessary for the conceptualization of the real by rendering the unfamiliar more familiar. This higher level of cognition and intelligence contributes to our full humanity.

Metaphors may actually be people’s primary mode of mental operation. Because the mind experiences the world through the body in which it resides, people cannot help but conceptualize the world in terms of body perceptions. Metaphors create individual realities and therein shape human communication. Without metaphors humans would not be able to reason, create, and explore; They would lose full ability to perceive, interpret, and enhance understanding of the unfamiliar.[4] Without metaphors human minds would remain empty vessels, and would be unable to survive.

Metaphor plays an important role in the teaching-learning process. Educators should be aware of the powerful tool metaphors make when it comes to determining and expressing one’s educational philosophy. Metaphors use symbolism to link ideas about teaching and learning to something more familiar. Analogies are an effective learning tool for reinforcing thinking skills and conceptual understanding, and so educators should also recognize the large impact metaphors have on each individual’s life, and incorporate lessons on the usages of linguistic devices for both speech and writing. Good educators know how to use metaphors and analogies to make new and unfamiliar concepts more meaningful to students by connecting what they already have knowledge of to what they are learning. Education is a time for wonder and reflection; a time for creativity, responsibility, problem-solving, and self-motivation. When educators recognize that education is a journey and not a destination, students will be given the best opportunity to open their minds, develop their strengths, and prepare to explore life’s vast opportunities.

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[1] Bickerton, Derek. Adam’s Tongue: How Humans Made Language, How Language Made Humans. New York: Hill and Wang, 2010. Print. Further reference to this source in parentheses (Bickerton, p.#).

[2] Maslow, A.H. “A Theory of Human Motivation.” Psychological Review 50.4 (1943):370-396. PsychINFO. Web. 18 Sept. 2012. Further reference to this source in parentheses (Maslow, p.#).

[3] Salzmann, Zdenek. Language, Culture, & [and] Society: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology. Boulder: Westview, 1993. Print. Further reference to this source in parentheses (Salzmann, p.#).

[4] Hymes, Dell H. Foundations in Sociolinguistics; an Ethnographic Approach. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1974. Print.

Welcome!

Me and My Boys

 

Welcome!

My name is Emily, and I am a Senior at Hobart and William Smith Colleges. I am a philosophy major and am currently working on an honors project titled, Metaphor: Making the Abstract Concrete and Visual. As I continue to work on my thesis I plan to post sections of it here on WordPress, and I would love some feedback. My project is broken down into three parts: First, I am looking into language and human evolution; second, I am looking at communication beyond the literal level; and third, I am looking at the role of metaphor in the classroom setting. Again, I would love feedback from anyone who finds this topic interesting. Share your thoughts, give suggestions, any contribution is appreciated!

Enjoy!

~ECP